The Issue
The fields of Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) have experienced exponential growth and development in recent years, presenting an opportunity for the creation of innovative technologies that can significantly enhance our daily lives. However, to design AI systems that are intuitive and empathetic, it is essential to have a deep understanding of the fundamental processes of human cognition.
Mental imagery is one such aspect of human cognition that has been extensively researched and debated. It is the ability to create sensory experiences in one's mind without the presence of external stimuli. Mental imagery has been hypothesized to play a critical role in human cognition, including memory recall, problem-solving, and creativity. However, the existence and significance of mental imagery in human thinking remain an open question and subject of research in the fields of cognitive science and neuroscience.
Consequently, this research paper seeks to investigate the presence and significance of mental imagery in human cognition and its implications for designing more intuitive and empathetic AI systems within the HCI and AI fields. The primary objective of this study is to determine whether there is sufficient evidence to support the notion that people use mental imagery in their thinking processes. To address this question, a comprehensive literature review has been conducted to explore various aspects related to mental imagery, including whether humans utilize mental imagery as a fundamental component of their cognitive processes and whether the empirical evidence from cognitive science and neuroscience supports the existence of mental imagery in human thinking. From here, it can be determined how the presence of mental imagery impacts various cognitive functions such as memory recall, problem-solving, and creativity. It is also important to understand the definition of mental imagery and the distinctions between mental imagery and other cognitive processes, particularly verbal thinking.
The findings of this research will provide insights into the nature and role of mental imagery in human cognition and its implications for designing more intuitive and empathetic AI systems. Furthermore, it will contribute to the broader understanding of human cognition and its intersection with AI and HCI. The ultimate goal of this research is to inform the design of more intuitive and empathetic AI systems that can better serve and support human needs.
Alternatives
Several conclusions can be drawn based on mental imagery's role, variability, and complexity. There is compelling evidence that mental imagery is a fundamental component of human cognition. Studies in neuroscience support that when people form mental representations of things, scenes, and ideas, they are a significant part of the cognitive processes. The literature review highlights that mental imagery plays a vital role in various aspects of human cognition, including memory, problem-solving, creativity, and emotional regulation. It is evident that mental imagery is not just a passive process but can actively influence cognitive functions. It is associated with memory recall, problem-solving, creativity, and emotional regulation. Mental imagery enhances these cognitive processes, indicating its significance in human thinking.
There are distinctions between mental imagery and other cognitive processes, particularly verbal thinking. Mental imagery involves the creation of sensory-rich representations without relying on verbal or linguistic components (Keogh, 2011). This differentiation underscores the unique role of mental imagery in human cognition.
There is substantial variability in the strength and characteristics of mental imagery among individuals. Some people have vivid and detailed mental imagery, while others have less vivid and less detailed mental imagery, or even none at all (Pearson, 2019). This suggests that there may be a spectrum of imagery abilities, from hyperphantasia, the condition of having incredibly definitive mental imagery, to aphantasia, the inability to picture things in one’s mind (Keil, 1999).
In another light, neuroimaging studies have shown that when people form mental representations of things, scenes, and ideas, it triggers neural activity in the same regions of the brain that are activated when experiencing those stimuli in reality (Ganis, 2012). This suggests that the brain processes mental imagery in a way that is similar to how it processes real-life experiences.
The ability to create images in one's mind, even without any external stimuli is not just a passive process, as it can actively influence cognitive functions such as memory recall, problem-solving, creativity, and emotional regulation (Wicken, 2021). Many believe that mental imagery enhances these cognitive processes, indicating its significance in human thinking and behavior. In fact, studies have shown that practicing mental imagery can improve performance in various tasks, from sports to academic subjects (Keogh, 2011). Furthermore, mental imagery can also be used as a therapeutic tool for conditions such as anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (Hackmann, 2004). Overall, mental imagery is a complex and powerful cognitive process that plays a significant role in human experience.
Despite these individual differences, the evidence indicates that mental imagery is a complex and multifaceted cognitive process that is crucial to human cognition. It is associated with various cognitive functions, and it enhances these functions in significant ways. Moreover, mental imagery plays a unique role in human cognition, as it involves the creation of sensory-rich representations without relying on verbal or linguistic components.
Evidence
Mental imagery is a concept that has been extensively studied by cognitive scientists to investigate how humans think. The discussion on the interplay between imagery and perceptual processes has provided valuable insights into how humans use mental imagery to think.
By reviewing experimental methods employed by cognitive scientists to investigate mental imagery, it can be concluded that the concept of thinking in images is a viable one. While there are inherent challenges in studying mental imagery due to its subjective nature and the inability of direct observation by experimenters, the transition from introspective methods to more objective approaches during the 1960s incorporated behavioral and cognitive neuroscience methods, which have proven instrumental in addressing longstanding queries regarding mental imagery (Ganis, 2012).
A 2004 study by Ann Hackmann and Emily A. Holmes provides a clinical perspective on mental imagery and its relevance to psychopathology, offering insights that can be valuable for investigating the role of mental imagery in human cognition. They concluded that there is a diverse range of psychopathological conditions in which mental imagery plays a pivotal role, underscoring the need to explore these relationships and their clinical implications. Looking into intrusive mental imagery that stems from various psychological disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), agoraphobia, body dysmorphic disorder, mood disorders, and psychosis, connections were found between mental imagery, memory, and psychopathology., which emphasizes the importance of identifying and addressing problematic imagery in psychological therapy (Hackmann, 2004).
In addition, the connection between mental imagery and autobiographical memory is of both theoretical and clinical significance. This insight aligns with understanding how mental imagery contributes to memory recall and other cognitive processes (Hackmann, 2004).
Researchers have investigated the effect of removing sensory stimulations on the participant’s imagination and memory. Visual working memory with individuals with strong imagery has diminished performance on imagery tasks when background luminance is adjusted. This may contribute to the contentious issue of working memory and its links to cognitive functions, highlighting the significant variability in individual performance and capacity and the role of the early visual cortex in this process (Keogh, 2011).
Mental imagery refers to the ability to generate sensory representations of objects, scenes, and events in the mind's eye. Visual working memory, on the other hand, refers to the ability to retain and manipulate visual information over a short period of time (Keil, 1999). The study aimed to investigate the relationship between mental imagery and visual working memory, as well as the impact of background luminance on these processes.
Keogh uses a phenomenon known as binocular rivalry to assess imagery, demonstrating that strong imagers tend to perform better in visual working memory tasks. Binocular rivalry occurs when different images are presented to each eye simultaneously, leading to a perceptual switch between the two images. However, this relationship is not observed in iconic memory tasks, revealing that individuals with strong imagery abilities use imagery as a strategy in visual working memory tasks. Poor imagers may employ different strategies, possibly more language-like or verbal, to complete these tasks (Keogh, 2011).
Moreover, the study revealed that background luminance can impact the use of imagery as a strategy. The researchers adjusted the background luminance during visual working memory tasks and found that individuals with strong imagery abilities used imagery as a strategy in completing the tasks (Keogh, 2011). This suggests that the use of mental imagery may be more prevalent in individuals with strong imagery abilities, showing that there is significant variability in performance and capacity among individuals. Poor imagers may employ different strategies, possibly more language-like or verbal ones, in completing these tasks.
Joel Pearson offers an extensive overview of various aspects of mental imagery and its potential impact on cognitive processes. One key takeaway from his study is the concept of involuntary imagery, where sensory cortices respond to absent stimuli, raising questions about conscious imagery-like experiences (Pearson, 2019). Understanding this involuntary aspect of mental imagery sheds light on how imagery may manifest even in the absence of external stimuli and its relevance to cognitive processes.
This suggests that mental imagery has the characteristics of being advantageous, unnecessary, and clinically disruptive. Mental imagery could not be studied for a long time due to a lack of technology to investigate it methodologically. It is understood that a large web of areas in the brain, including the frontal cortex and the sensory regions, primarily hosts visual imagery. The paper also discusses how individuals can vary from hyperphantasia to aphantasia. This finding holds significance for understanding individual differences in mental imagery and its potential influence on cognitive functions.
Both Keogh and Pearson provide valuable insights into the role of mental imagery in cognitive processes, with Keogh focusing on the relationship between imagery and performance in visual working memory tasks, while Pearson offers a broader exploration of mental imagery's characteristics and its impact on cognitive functions. Keogh utilizes binocular rivalry as a tool to assess imagery, finding that strong imagers outperform poor imagers in visual working memory tasks. Notably, Keogh identifies a strategy shift between strong and poor imagers, with the former employing imagery as a cognitive strategy, whereas the latter may resort to alternative, potentially more verbal, approaches. Additionally, Keogh's study introduces the impact of background luminance on imagery strategy, highlighting the variability in performance and capacity among individuals with different imagery abilities.
Pearson's study, on the other hand, delves into the concept of involuntary imagery, revealing that sensory cortices respond to absent stimuli, leading to questions about conscious imagery-like experiences. This insight expands the understanding of how mental imagery can manifest even without external stimuli, emphasizing its potential relevance to cognitive processes. Pearson's work also touches upon the advantageous, unnecessary, and clinically disruptive aspects of mental imagery. The paper underscores the technological challenges that hindered the study of mental imagery for a considerable period, emphasizing the brain regions associated with visual imagery, including the frontal cortex and sensory regions. Moreover, Pearson's discussion of the spectrum from hyperphantasia to aphantasia contributes to understanding individual differences in mental imagery and their potential implications for cognitive functions. Together, these studies offer complementary perspectives, with Keogh focusing on specific cognitive tasks and strategies, while Pearson provides a broader view of the characteristics and implications of mental imagery.
Studies conducted by split-brain individuals and Nishimura et al. have also provided evidence that humans use mental imagery in their thinking processes. The studies have distinguished two classes of processes involved in mental imagery: one that activates memories of the appearances of individual parts and another that arranges these parts correctly. The activation of certain brain regions and neural networks is associated with mental imagery processes (Nishimura, 2015).
Nishimura et. al. used tested two groups for visual imagery and verbal memorization. The study showed that strong visualizers had activations in the brain's visual area and that weak visualizers best activated the brain's frontal area. This fundamental study helps reestablish the foundation for verbal and image thinking but provides more details using modern technologies. Further, the high beta-band frequencies (25 Hz) of strong and weak visualizers were analyzed using magnetoencephalography (MEG). The results indicate that strong visualizers activate visual brain regions, while weak visualizers engage frontal language areas, suggesting a clear distinction between visual and verbal thinkers.
Still, based on the studies conducted by Nishimura et al. and split-brain individuals, it can be concluded that humans do think using mental imagery. This mental imagery involves the activation of certain brain regions and neural networks, which are associated with mental imagery processes. This defines two classes of processes involved in mental imagery: one that activates memories of the appearances of individual parts and another that arranges these parts correctly. Nishimura et al.'s study further enhances the understanding of the connection between mental imagery and brain activity, emphasizing the potential differentiation between visual and verbal thinking processes (Nishimura, 2015).
Pearson’s exploration of imagery strength and its neural mechanisms is particularly noteworthy. It reveals that the surface size of the primary visual cortex (V1) is inversely related to imagery strength. This connection between neural structure and imagery strength suggests that individuals with varying levels of imagery ability may have distinct neural profiles (Pearson, 2019). This finding holds significance for understanding individual differences in mental imagery and its potential influence on cognitive functions emphasizing the role of imagery in normal cognitive functions like memory, spatial navigation, and reading comprehension. Imagery is relevant in both normal and pathological cognitive function.
Mental imagery is the ability to create sensory experiences in the mind without external stimuli. The Pearson study explores the neural mechanisms involved in mental imagery and their potential impact on cognitive processes, shedding light on the involuntary aspect of mental imagery and its relevance to conscious experiences. A large web of areas in the brain, including the frontal cortex and sensory regions, primarily hosts visual imagery (Pearson, 2019).
In a later study by Nishimura et. al., visual and verbal thinkers were studied as to how they complete mental imagery tasks. More specifically, the aim was to determine differences in brain activity with individuals thinking spontaneously. A pilot study within this field revealed differential brain regions activated when choices are made regarding the near versus distant future. These studies adopt a broad perspective, focusing on the average human population, but conventional economics acknowledges the diversity of individual agents within society, categorized as risk lovers and risk averters, addressing resource allocation among heterogeneous individuals.
Wicken explored the role of mental imagery in emotional responses, particularly in the context of aphantasia—a condition characterized by the absence of visual imagery. The research investigates whether individuals with aphantasia exhibit a distinct physiological response to frightening scenarios compared to those with intact imagery. The study utilizes skin conductance levels (SCL) as a measure of autonomic nervous system arousal, aiming to shed light on the emotional amplification theory of visual imagery. The subsequent literature review delves into existing models of human cognition that posit mental imagery as a mechanism linking thoughts with emotions. While many theories rely on subjective reports, the study distinguishes itself by employing a unique population of individuals with aphantasia to objectively explore the emotional consequences of the absence of visual imagery (Wicken, 2021).
The research methodology involves two experiments: the imagery experiment and the perception experiment. In the imagery experiment, aphantasic individuals and a control group read frightening scenarios while their SCL is recorded. The results indicate a significant reduction in fear response among aphantasic participants, supporting the hypothesis that visual imagery plays a crucial role in amplifying emotional reactions to imagined scenarios. To address potential alternative explanations, the perception experiment exposes both groups to frightening images, revealing comparable and significant increases in SCL. The discussion emphasizes the study's contributions, highlighting the implications for understanding the emotional dimensions of mental imagery and its potential clinical applications (Wicken, 2021). The research provides novel insights into the emotional consequences of aphantasia, paving the way for future investigations into the broader impact of imagery on mental well-being and its relevance to psychological disorders.
It appears that mental imagery plays a crucial role in linking thoughts with emotions. The study's findings suggest that individuals with aphantasia, who lack visual imagery, exhibit a distinct physiological response to frightening scenarios compared to those with intact imagery. The research highlights the importance of mental imagery in amplifying emotional reactions to imagined scenarios and contributes to our understanding of the emotional dimensions of human cognition. Overall, the evidence suggests that humans do indeed think using mental imagery, and further investigations into its impact on mental well-being and psychological disorders are warranted (Wicken, 2021).
Thinking processes can be categorized into verbal thinking, as in using words for thinking, and visual thinking, by using mental imagery. Variations in individuals' capacity to evoke mental images have long been identified but confirmed in 2015, with visual thinkers relying more on the right hemisphere and visual brain regions, while verbal thinkers engage in ordered, language-driven thought processes. In the 2016 study, subjects were classified into groups based on their visualization abilities to explore how these abilities affect brain activation patterns during visual and verbal tasks. Strong visualizers displayed greater activation in visual brain regions, whereas strong verbalizers exhibited more activity in frontal language areas during verbal tasks, supporting the hypothesis that individuals with strong visualization abilities tend to be visual thinkers, while those with weaker visualization abilities lean toward verbal thinking (Nishimura, 2016).
In conjunction, these studies provide more compelling evidence that humans think using mental imagery. The ability to evoke and manipulate mental images is a crucial aspect of human cognition and is used in a wide range of tasks, from spatial navigation to creative problem-solving. While there are variations in individuals' capacity to evoke mental images, with some people being more proficient in visual thinking, while others rely more on language-driven thought processes, these differences in visualization abilities are associated with differential brain activation patterns, with strong visualizers displaying greater activation in visual brain regions, and strong verbalizers exhibiting more activity in frontal language areas during verbal tasks. This further supports the hypothesis that individuals with strong visualization abilities tend to be visual thinkers, while those with weaker visualization abilities lean toward verbal thinking (Nishimura, 2016). However, it is worth noting that these studies adopt a broad perspective, focusing on the average human population. As such, individuals may have more nuanced variations, and some may possess both strong visualization and verbal thinking abilities.
Despite these caveats, the findings from these studies have significant implications in several fields. For instance, in education, understanding the role of mental imagery in learning could help educators develop more effective teaching strategies. In psychology, these findings could shed light on the mechanisms of cognitive processes and the ways in which they are affected by various factors such as age, gender, and culture.
While on the topic of education, Paivio laid foundational work in exploring the idea that mental imagery plays a pivotal role in cognitive processes, particularly in the context of learning and remembering associations. His paper offers a conceptual framework that aligns mental imagery with memory recall, emphasizing how mental images serve as cognitive aids, enriching the ability to retain and retrieve information (Paivio, 1969). Paivio's work aligns with the core questions of the research project regarding the definition and role of mental imagery in cognitive science. Mental imagery is distinct from other cognitive processes, such as verbal thinking.
Based on Paivio's research and other studies in cognitive science, it's reasonable to conclude that humans do think using mental imagery as mental images play a significant role in learning and remembering associations. Further, mental imagery is distinct from other cognitive processes, such as verbal thinking, and serves as cognitive aids, enriching the ability to retain and retrieve information (Paivio, 1969).
Sherman et. al. discuss the dual-process theories of the social mind, automatic and controlled processes, which are the center of the social psychological theory. This paper helps show the evolution of the understanding of scientific psychology and how the dual-process theory was a turning point in resolving the competition of previous models and in the inspiration of new ones from 1999 to 2014. Showing how mental imagery relates to automatic and controlled processes in the mind furthers the case for thinking in images.
Based on the discussion by Sherman et. al. on the dual-process theories of the social mind and how mental imagery relates to automatic and controlled processes, it can be concluded that humans do think using mental imagery. The paper provides evidence that mental imagery plays a crucial role in both automatic and controlled processes in the mind, further supporting the case for thinking in images. This understanding of the role of mental imagery in the social mind can provide a foundation for future research in psychology and related fields (Sherman, 2014).
The evolution of knowledge on human cognition, as evidenced by the works of Paivio and Sherman, highlights the importance of understanding the role of mental imagery in cognitive processes. Paivio's foundational work, particularly in the context of learning and remembering associations, provides a conceptual framework aligning mental imagery with memory recall. His findings underscore the significance of mental images as cognitive aids that enhance the retention and retrieval of information. This aligns seamlessly with this paper’s core questions concerning the definition and role of mental imagery in cognitive science, emphasizing its distinction from other cognitive processes like verbal thinking. The understanding gleaned from Paivio's research contributes to the broader investigation into whether humans indeed think using mental imagery.
Additionally, Sherman et al.'s exploration of dual-process theories in the social mind represents a crucial turning point in the evolution of scientific psychology. The discussion of automatic and controlled processes in the social psychological theory sheds light on how mental imagery relates to these processes. This not only supports the case for thinking in images but also showcases the interconnectedness of mental imagery with both automatic and controlled cognitive functions. The conclusion drawn from Sherman et al.'s work strengthens the argument that mental imagery plays a pivotal role in human cognition. This understanding, extending beyond individual memory processes to the complexities of the social mind, provides a solid foundation for future research in psychology and related fields. The evolution of knowledge in these studies underscores the relevance of mental imagery in shaping our understanding of cognitive processes and their implications for various aspects of human experience.
Conclusion
Based on the available evidence, it is highly likely that humans think using mental imagery as a fundamental component of their cognitive processes. Mental imagery plays a critical role in various aspects of human cognition, and understanding its nature and significance can inform the design of more intuitive and empathetic AI systems that can better serve and support human needs. Mental imagery has been hypothesized to play a critical role in human cognition, including memory recall, problem-solving, and creativity. The findings of this study suggest that mental imagery is associated with memory recall, problem-solving, creativity, and emotional regulation. Furthermore, the literature review highlights that people utilize mental imagery as a fundamental component of their cognitive processes, and that the empirical evidence from cognitive science and neuroscience supports the existence of mental imagery in human thinking.
The studies in neuroscience presented by this paper support the claim that mental imagery is a significant part of the cognitive processes when people form mental representations of things, scenes, and ideas. The ability to create sensory experiences in one's mind without the presence of external stimuli is not just a passive process, as it can actively influence cognitive functions such as memory recall, problem-solving, creativity, and emotional regulation. Additionally, neuroimaging studies have shown that when people form mental representations of things, scenes, and ideas, it triggers neural activity in the same regions of the brain that are activated when experiencing those stimuli in reality. This suggests that the brain processes mental imagery in a way that is similar to how it processes real-life experiences. This finding provides further evidence for the fundamental role of mental imagery in human cognition.
Again, the caveat is that there is substantial variability in the strength and characteristics of mental imagery among individuals. Some people have vivid and detailed mental imagery, while others have less vivid and less detailed mental imagery, or even none at all. This suggests that mental imagery may not impact all individuals' cognitive processes in the same way.
Nevertheless, the ability to create images in one's mind, even without any external stimuli, can actively influence cognitive functions and enhance various cognitive processes.
Therefore, humans do think using mental imagery, and it impacts their cognition to a significant extent. Mental imagery must be considered a crucial aspect of human cognition when designing AI systems that are intuitive and empathetic. The intersection of AI and HCI has become a critical area of research in recent years. As technology continues to advance, there is a growing need for AI systems that can interact with humans in a more intuitive and empathetic way. To achieve this, it is essential to consider the role of mental imagery in human cognition when designing AI systems that aim to be more human-like.
The findings of this research have significant implications for the design of AI systems that can better serve and support human needs. By understanding the nature and role of mental imagery in human thinking, AI designers can create systems that are more intuitive and empathetic, leading to a more seamless and productive interaction between humans and technology.
Moreover, the insights gained from this research can contribute to the broader understanding of human cognition and its intersection with AI and HCI. As we learn more about the role of mental imagery in human thinking, we can create AI systems that are more human-like in their behavior and thinking, leading to a more natural and productive interaction between humans and technology.
In conclusion, the role of mental imagery in human cognition must be considered a crucial aspect of AI and HCI research. By understanding the nature and role of mental imagery in human thinking, we can design AI systems that are more intuitive and empathetic and better serve and support human needs. The ultimate goal is to create AI systems that are more human-like in their thinking and behavior, leading to a more natural and productive interaction between humans and technology.
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Appendix
Use of Large Language Models
The use of ChatGPT largely assisted the in-depth literature review. This allowed for quicker and more efficient factoid acquisition and helped highlight important parts of the studies that may have been missed in the initial few reads. These paragraphs were generated by providing the LLM the purpose and questions to be answered by the study. The prompt continued by providing original thoughts from the draft on the study to be reviewed, then the inclusion of the introduction, results, discussion, and conclusion of the study itself. ChatGPT was able to generate several paragraph-long responses that highlighted important details that helped aid the analysis of the paper. Those paragraphs were used as a starting point for the literature review section, and then additional original thoughts were written based on what was learned.
ChatGPT was used for the completion of the final project, as specific facts and reference points should be able to be recalled in the chat as necessary to build up the argument. In a way, the chat created by the logging of these source materials is a robust intelligent searching tool. When content was needed to back up a point, the information in the saved chat could be parsed by the LLM to provide relevant material.
In writing the final paper, ChatGPT helped keep the writing formal and academic. Through the use of written content from the author of this paper, ChatGPT revised and edited choppy sentences and lengthy run-ons. It reorganized sections of the paper by grouping points better than they were initially arranged.
This assignment used the Large Language Model (LLM) ChatGPT to guide research questions and the direction of study for this project. Using prompts such as “If humans do think using mental imagery, then what practical implications does this have on other fields?” and “What questions should be studied to answer the question, do humans think using mental imagery?” expanded the expected field of study into areas not previously considered. These prompts generated diverse and specific bulleted outlines that would have taken days of thought, brainstorming, and reconsideration in just a few seconds. This tool has improved writing significantly because it can open the mind to both obvious and distant connections, such as “thinking using mental imagery” to “evaluating PTSD treatment methods” and “making the user experience of AI more intuitive and evolving generative AI to be more emphatic” that would not have been so quickly conceived. LLMs can make very compelling text, but some novel studies have shown that readers can sense AI-generated text 6 out of 10 times due to its straightforward style and objective stances. While AI will likely improve to decrease the human detection rate, it is still necessary to only allow Generative AI models to guide and outline writing rather than copy and paste responses directly. Researchers should be thorough and ensure that the text they publish faithfully represents their own thoughts and opinions so that they can be accurately referenced.
In addition, AI often can misinterpret the purpose of a project due to partial information or the lack of explicit information that is generally implied by the author and understood by human readers. This was the case for this assignment as the LLM attempted to generate responses that emphasized how the concept of mental imagery can improve AI models and user interaction rather than the intended goal of the assignment, which was to evaluate the question of if humans think using mental imagery, set a plan for research, and discuss possible applications of the research. Constantly reviewing responses and assessing their relevance is vital to not getting sidetracked by an iterative AI model.
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